Artiklen går grundigere til værks med følgende emner fra
foregående artikel (dog er strategisk implementation klippet ud af vores
eksemplar):
Strategic analysis (understanding the strategic situation)
The environment
Expectations, objectives and power: culture
Resources
Strategic choice (formulation of strategy itself)
Generation of options
Evaluation of options
Selection of strategy
Strategy implementation (often reffered to as tactics)
Resource planing
Organisation structure
People and systems
I første omgang behandles Strategic Analysis med omverden, kultur og
resourcer som delelementer. Derefter behandles Strategic Choice med generering
af strategi, evaluering af strategi og valg af strategi som delelementer.
Omverden
For at analysere omverdenen (environmental analysis), foreslår forfatteren
følgende tilgang:
Audit the environmental influences
Assess the nature of the environment to judge whether it is simple or complex
Identify the key environmental forces using Porter's five-forces-model
Identify the competitive position using a life cycle analysis
Identify the key opportunities and threats using SWOT/TOWS analysis
Omverdenen består af:
Societal environment (PEST)
Socio-cultural forces
Economic forces
Technological forces
Political-legal forces
Task environment
Demand
Government
Market structure
Technology
Internal environment
Structure
Cultural web
Resources
Følgende er et mere deltajeret billede af omverdenen (societal environment
/ PEST):
Socio-cultural
Life-style changes
Career expectations
Consumer activism
Rate of family formation
Growth rate of population
Age distribution of population
Regional shifts in population
Life expectancies
Birth rates
Economic
GNP trends
Interest rates
Money supply
Inflation rates
Unemployment levels
Wage/price controls
Devaluation/revaluation
Energy availability and cost
Technological
Total organisational spending on R&D
Total industry spending
Focus of technological efforts
Patent protection
New products
New developments in technology transfer from lab to marketplace
Productivity improvements through automation
Political-legal
Antitrust regulations
Environmental protection laws
Tax laws
Special incentives
Foreign trade regulations
Attitudes toward foreign companies
Laws on hiring and promotion
Stability of government
Følgende er et mere deltajeret billede af omverdenen (task environment):
Demand
Size and growth of existing market
Number/size distribution of customers
Physical distribution channels
Nature of competition in market eg. importance of price and non-price
competition
Market structure
Number/size distribution of competitors and suppliers
Barriers to entry and exit to market
Product characteristics
Technology
Level of technology and likely change
Cost structure including economies of scale
Dependence upon particualr raw materials or labour
Government
Impact of particular legislation on the industry relating to product
or consumption
Role of government as supplier, competitor or customer
Når den fremtidige omverden skal vurderes, kan det være fordelagtigt
at have forskellige mulige scenarier. Disse kan blive til således:
Define the scope
Identify major stakeholders
Identify basic trends - What do we know?
Identify key uncertainties - What we knoe we don't know
Construct initial scenario themes (eg. best/worst case scenario)
Check for consistency and plausability
Develop learning scenarios - navngivning
Identify research needs
Develop quantitative models
Evolve towards decision scenarios
Herfra præsenteres Porter's five-forces:
Rivalry amongst existing competitors
Threat of new entrants
Threat of substitute products or services
Bargaining power of suppliers
Bargaining power of buyers
Dette ekspliciteres til følgende:
Rivalry between competitors
Industry growth
High fixed costs or high storage costs
Intermittent over-capacity
Product differences, brand identity and switching costs for customers
The number of organisations and their size
Diversity of competitors
Corporate stakes
High exit barriers
Threat of new entrants
Government policy
Expected retaliation
Absolute cost advantage
Access to distribution channels
Switching costs for buyers
Economies of scale
Product differentiation and brand loyalty
Capital requirements
Threat of substitutes
The relative price and performance of substitutes
Switching costs for customers
Buyer's propensity to substitutes
The power of buyer
Price sensitivity
brand loyalty and differantiation
the impact of the product on their product
customer's own profitability
decision maker's incentives (eg. quality, etc.)
Bargaining leverage
buyer concentration and volume
buyer switching costs
buyer information
threat of backward vertical integration by buyers
existence of substitute
The power of suppliers
Switching costs of changing to an alternative supplier
Availability of substitute supplies
Supplier concentration
The importance of volume to suppliers
Cost relative to the purchasing industry's total costs
The impact of product to cost or differentiation
The threat of forward integration by suppliers
Herfra gennemgås life cycle analysis:
Introduction
Growth
Maturity
Decline
og SWOT:
Strenghts
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
SWOT er relativt til at gå til, men en lidt mere udførlig gennemgang
præsenteres her:
Prepare an Enterprise Profile of the kind of business, the geographic domain,
the competitive situation and the top management orientation
Identify and evaluate economic, social, political, demographic, products
and technology and market and competition factors
Prepare a forecast, make predictions and assessment of the future
Prepare an SW audit in management and organisation, operations, finance,
marketing and other
Develop alternatives
Make Strategic Choices by considering strategies, tactics, and action
Test 1-6 for consistency
Prepare contingency plans
Ud fra SWOT-analysen kan virksomheden vælge forskellige strategier. Disse
betegnes som Maxi-Maxi, Mini-Maxi, Mini-Mini og Maxi-Mini.
Kultur (værdier og mål)
McGregors Theory X og Y: X er den klassiske kontrolteori, hvor mennesker er
intetanende væsener, der skal styres. Y er den mere moderne, hvor mennesker
besidder evnerne, men skal guides i den rigtige retning.
Organisationens mål:
They provide a statement of the financial objectives compared with the current
performance of the organisationindicating the extent and scope of the strategic
decisions to be made
By providing a statement of the broad mission of the organisation they provide
a product-market focus for the business strategy of the organisation
Having a set of corporate goals established at the senior level of the organisation
provides objectives for individual functions or areas of responsibility within
the rest of the organisation
Målene kan være åbne, dvs. kan ikke opfyldes, men vil eksistere
lige så længe som organisationen (eller til de laves om). De kan
være lukkede, dvs. de kan opfyldes. Målene kan desuden eksistere
på flere niveauer f.eks. for hele organisationen eller for enkelte afdelinger
(igen åbne eller lukkede).
I organisationen er der interne kampe om organisationens mål grundet
de forskellige stakeholders agenda:
Group
Objective
Shareholder
Market value of the investment
Stability of dividens
Size of the dividend
Management
Sales growth
Asset growth
Profitability
Labour force
Wage increase
Numbers employed
Job security
Society
Productivity gains
Exports
Profitability
Social welfare
Desuden er magten heller ikke ligeligt fordelt mellem enhederne i organisationen.
Magtens fordeling afhænger af:
Work flow pervasiveness - hvor mange er afhængige af enheden?
Immediacy - hvad er følgerne hvis enheden forsvinder?
Substitutability - kan andre enheder overtage arbejdet?
Desuden kan de forskellige enheders mål og være indbyrdes modstridende.
Ressourcer
Følgende er vigtige ressourcer:
Key area
Dimensions
Product/market
Share of existing markets
Range of products
Position in product life cycle
Dependence upon key product for sales/profits/cash flow
Distribution network
marketing and market research
Prodution
Number, size, location, age and capacity of plants
Spcialisation/versatility of equipment
Production and cost levels
Cost/availability of raw materials
Production control systems
Finance
Present asset structure
Present capital structure
Acess to additional equity and debt finance
Pattern of cash flow
Procedures for financial management
Technology
Currency of production methods and products
R&D spending and effectiveness
Organisation and human resources
Organisation structure
Management style and succession
Staff development policies
Management/labour force relationship
Reward structures
Derudover kan Porter's value chain give et indblik i virksomhedens ressourcer:
Primary activities
Inbound logistics
Operations
Outboud logistics
Sales and marketing
Services
Support activities
Administration and infrastructure
Human resource management
Product/technology/development
Procurement
Porter's value chain går både frem og tilbage i forsyningskæden
samt parallelt hos f.eks. konkurrenter.
Det er også vigtigt at kende sine produkter. Til dette er Boston Consulting
Group Matrix (BCG Matrix) ganske effektiv (figuren er langt bedre illustreret
som et matrix):
Star: Kraftig markedsvækst - Stor markedsandel
Wild cat/?: Kraftig markedsvækst - Lille markedsandel
Dog: Beskeden markedsvækst - Lille markedsandel
Cash Cow: Beskeden markedsvækst - Stor markedsandel
Generering af strategi
Når den strategiske analyse er overstået, skal det strategiske
valg i gang. Det starter med en generering af diverse strategier. Dernæst
følger en evaluering af de generede strategier for til sidst at ende
med et valg af strategi. Husk, processen er stærkt iterativ, men gennemgås
linært.
Igen, de to ovenstående lister ses bedst som en model (side 64, strategic
option generator).
Evaluering og valg af strategi
Evaluering og valg af strategi kan gøres ved at vurderer følgende
punkter:
Strategic fit - appropriatenes
SWOT analysis
Product porfolio analysis
Life cycle analysis
Cultural web analysis
Strategic feasibility
Strategic desirability
Profitability
Risk profile
Social cost / benefit appraisal
Shareholder expectations
Ovenstående placeres i en "risks and returns protfolio matrix"
med følgende kerneelementer: Early succes, glittering prize, sweetmeats
og backburner (side 67).
Herved slutter artiklen med en kort og ufærdig gennemgang af strategisk
implementation.